浮世絵受難の時代：寛政の改革と町人文化Art in Chains—Ukiyo-e's Darkest Era

Today, ukiyo-e (浮世絵) and kabuki (歌舞伎) are celebrated as traditional Japanese art forms, but did you know there was a time when these cultural expressions faced severe suppression?

Let’s rewind to the late 18th century. Until then, governance under the Tokugawa shogunate had been remarkably stable. However, this prolonged stability led government officials toward indulgent lifestyles, drastically deteriorating the shogunate’s finances. When Tokugawa Ieharu (徳川家治, 1737–1786), the 10th shogun, assumed power (reigning from 1760 to 1786), he sought financial reform, strongly influenced by lessons learned from his extravagant father. An avid shogi (Japanese chess) player, Ieharu applied the game’s strategic principles to vigorously promote commercial policies. Consequently, the merchant (chonin, 町人) class surged in prominence. Previously, the shogunate had largely prioritized agricultural policy, but Ieharu initiated a significant shift in direction.

To manage these financial reforms, Ieharu appointed Tanuma Okitsugu (田沼意次, 1719–1788), who quickly leveraged the shogun’s patronage to intensify economic policies. Tanuma championed a money economy, prioritized commerce, encouraged the development of new rice fields and mines, and expanded international trade to import technologies and information, thereby exerting considerable cultural influence. This economic vitality ushered in a golden age for urban merchant culture. Commoners in cities, especially Edo (modern-day Tokyo), enjoyed unprecedented economic prosperity and cultural freedom, giving rise to popular entertainments such as ukiyo-e prints and kabuki theater. Yet, Tanuma had a powerful adversary within the shogunate—Matsudaira Sadanobu (松平定信, 1759–1829), grandson of the eighth shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune and a significant figure in the government.

The rivalry between these two figures intensified. Matsudaira opposed Tanuma’s governance and plotted for years to orchestrate his downfall. Economic liberalization inevitably widened social disparities, and Matsudaira capitalized on public anxieties exacerbated by a series of natural disasters, including famines and the eruption of Mount Asama. He launched a propaganda campaign portraying Tanuma as a corrupt bureaucrat who exacerbated governmental decay through bribery. In 1784, circumstances rapidly deteriorated after Tanuma’s son and closest aide, Tanuma Okitomo (田沼意知), was assassinated inside Edo Castle.

Ultimately, Tanuma fell from power in 1786, and Matsudaira Sadanobu rose to prominence. Having removed his political rival, Matsudaira assumed the position of roju (老中, senior councilor with considerable political authority) in 1787 and launched the stringent reforms known as the “Kansei Reforms” (寛政の改革), implemented from 1787 to 1793. These reforms cast a dark shadow over the vibrant culture that flourished under Tanuma. Matsudaira promoted austerity and ideological control as part of his financial strategy, enforcing strict regulations on publications and entertainments deemed morally corrupting. Although Matsudaira justified his policies as necessary to rectify “public morality,” his true concern was the potential collapse of the samurai-dominated government due to the rising economic power of the merchant class.

Matsudaira argued that social instability stemmed not from governmental failures but from merchant influence, prompting severe cultural crackdowns. Primary targets were humorous and satirical literary works (“gesaku (戯作),” such as sharebon (洒落本) and kibyoshi (黄表紙)), as well as ukiyo-e prints. Under the guise of reform, Matsudaira’s regime implemented strict censorship, ushering in an era of darkness for common people who found themselves under severe governmental scrutiny. Reflecting this discontent, satirical songs longing nostalgically for Tanuma’s rule became popular among Edo’s populace, demonstrating their resistance to the reforms. Unlike previous eras, townspeople were no longer passive recipients of government decrees. Consequently, the shogunate intensified its repression, profoundly affecting the lives and careers of ukiyo-e artists and kabuki actors.

The primary victims of Matsudaira’s crackdown were initially publishers. Books satirizing government officials or depicting explicit romantic relationships in entertainment districts (yukaku) were banned, authors and publishers harshly punished, stores destroyed, and works burned. For instance, ukiyo-e artist Santo Kyoden (山東京伝, 1761–1816) was sentenced to fifty days of house arrest, and his publisher, Tsutaya Juzaburo (蔦屋重三郎, 1750–1797), faced partial confiscation of his property and destruction of his shop. This Tsutaya Juzaburo was instrumental in the rise of ukiyo-e as a popular art form.

The severity of repression triggered deep anxiety, causing many ukiyo-e artists of samurai descent to abandon their brushes and retreat into seclusion. Kabuki theaters were also heavily regulated as extravagant luxuries corrupting public morality. Theaters were demolished, extravagant performances banned, and scripts subject to intense censorship. Lavish stage settings and costumes were restricted, forcing playwrights to resort to historical subjects and subtle satire as alternatives. Contemporary dramas featuring provocative subjects became virtually impossible to stage, leading to a significant decline in kabuki theater.

Yet, the era had a fascinating aspect: the harsher the suppression, the sharper the expressions became. During this oppressive period, one ukiyo-e artist rapidly rose to prominence: the renowned Kitagawa Utamaro (喜多川歌麿, 1753–1806). Initially honing his skills through illustrations for satirical books (sharebon, kibyoshi), Utamaro’s career shifted significantly upon meeting Tsutaya Juzaburo. Recognizing Utamaro’s talent, Tsutaya published his lavishly colored kyoka (狂歌) poetry books and bijin-ga (美人画, pictures of beautiful women). Utamaro’s innovative “okubi-e” (美人大首絵) boldly highlighted the expressive beauty and humanity of common women and courtesans, bringing him widespread acclaim.

However, Matsudaira’s repressive measures inevitably impacted Utamaro. Although Matsudaira Sadanobu himself fell from power in 1793, his stringent policies had become deeply entrenched, continuing to constrain merchant freedoms. In 1793, the shogunate prohibited including real names of townspeople and courtesans in ukiyo-e prints, effectively banning promotional tactics that increased artwork popularity. Utamaro responded cleverly by creating “hanji-e” (判じ絵, puzzle pictures), embedding riddles for viewers to identify the depicted figures. But authorities soon closed even this loophole. By 1800, Utamaro’s iconic bijin okubi-e series was outright banned. Consequently, his artistic output sharply declined, as beautiful women’s portraits were viewed as dangerously decadent threats to social order.

Despite this, Utamaro never lost his creative spirit. As political oppression intensified, he explored new subjects, quietly challenging the government. Tragically, in 1804, his series depicting Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his concubines (“Taiko gosai rakuto yukan no zu”, 太閤五妻洛東遊観之図) was banned, and Utamaro was sentenced to fifty days of house arrest. Authorities condemned the series for irreverently portraying historical figures, considering such depictions disrespectful to samurai and nobles. Stripped of creative freedom, Utamaro fell into despair and passed away in 1806, just two years later. Even a master artist, who produced timeless masterpieces, was unable to withstand the crushing force of political power.

During this time, ukiyo-e faced significant artistic stagnation due to severe censorship. Unlike Utamaro, who openly created art, another mysterious figure cleverly avoided punishment by hiding his true identity and origins. This enigmatic artist suddenly appeared, producing around 140 works in just ten months during this harsh era, then vanished without a trace, astonishing Edo’s inhabitants. He was Toshusai Sharaku (東洲斎写楽), whose identity remains unknown even today, and whose striking works profoundly impressed Utamaro himself.