神話の生まれ方：ムスヒと高御産巣日神How Myths Are Born: Musuhi and Takamimusuhi

Once again this year, I was able to traverse the Japanese archipelago, conducting my own independent inquiries. As is my custom, I pursued several themes simultaneously, but the one I placed particular weight upon was the quest for the origins: How, truly, were the Japanese myths recorded in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki born? Japanese mythology was, for a very long time, a tradition transmitted solely through oral recitation. In ancient times, beginning with the lore of a tribe in a single locality, these stories became stratified during the process of forming composite tribes or organizing into clans.

The binding together of these disparate tribes is symbolized in mythology primarily through marital relations. However, one must not succumb to the error of viewing this as a literal narrative of who wed whom; it is, rather, a symbol of alliances between different groups. While there were likely various patterns to these unions, a distinct form becomes visible when multiple foreign tribes cooperated to sublimate into a single, larger tribal dimension: rather than elevating a god from the lore of one specific tribe, they created and established a completely new god. This was likely born of necessity; to elevate the god of a specific tribe would disrupt the communal power balance, rendering peaceful governance impossible.

In other words, the more complex the intermingling of different tribes became, the more they avoided clinging to existing deities—which would invite conflict—and instead, to maintain a stable equilibrium of power, they first created a new god under a shared rite. Through this intriguing method, they realized a peaceful governance. What is most fascinating is that, premised on the lineage of this newly created god, the respective gods of the composite tribes were set into the genealogy in a reverse direction. By "reverse direction," I do not mean the linear progression of time from grandparents to parents to children; rather, the genealogy was designed to project retroactively into the past.

This may appear arcane, but to articulate it simply: suppose there were four tribes. Into the lineage of the god created jointly by these four tribes—whether as children, descendants, or ancestors—the gods worshipped by each individual tribe were retroactively incorporated. This made it possible for the traces of the composite tribes to be firmly embedded within the genealogy of the single, jointly created god. I believe this groundbreaking invention enabled highly stable governance and became the wellspring that allowed for continuous expansion. This had already begun as a major current from the middle of the Jomon period.

Such examples are innumerable within the mythology. While the myths place immense importance on divine genealogy, there is simultaneously a problem. After all, the fundamental myths we can reference today—the Kojiki (compiled in 712) and the Nihon Shoki (compiled in 720)—are Japan’s oldest extant books, yet they were established in the first half of the 8th century. It is undeniable that they possess a heavily political and state-centric image, assembled under the new rulers of a very new era.

Indeed, the existence of the husband-and-wife sovereigns who governed this new era—the 40th Emperor Tenmu (reign: 673–686) and the 41st Empress Jito (reign: 690–697)—becomes crucial. It was during the era of these two sovereigns that myths, traditions, and legends were unified and established within a single canon, causing the lineage of Japanese gods to divide into two. However, this unification only encompassed the regional myths and legends of the clans and retainers within the Emperor’s dominion at that time; the lore of tribes outside this vast governance was ignored. After all, at this point, "Japan" as a unified concept did not yet exist. Even within the dimension of the Emperor, there must once have been countless multiple lineages, but from the era of Emperor Tenmu to Empress Jito, they were compiled and organized, ultimately dividing into two main divine genealogies. The names of those gods are Takamimusuhi and Amaterasu.

Takamimusuhi and Amaterasu are gods of immense importance in the mythology. While Amaterasu (the presiding deity of Ise Jingu), who is positioned as the Imperial Ancestor God, is known even outside Japan, there are many—even within Japan—who do not know Takamimusuhi.

However, as I continued my investigation, I discovered that in the era preceding the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, the cult of Takamimusuhi held absolute influence, while the worship of Amaterasu was conducted only in localized places. Yet, around the time the era shifted to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jito, a new movement of faith suddenly arose, positioning Amaterasu as the ancestral deity of the Emperor. Or rather, more accurately than a movement of faith, it should be called a political movement. Conversely, one could say that prior to this era, there was no custom of the Emperor himself worshipping Amaterasu as an ancestral deity. While the archetype likely existed, the history of the formation of this god named Amaterasu is extremely complex, so I shall treat it with the depth it deserves in a separate article in the future. Put simply, while Amaterasu is generally recognized today as a female deity, in ancient times this figure was a male deity, or rather, possessed a reality that oscillated between male and female. In fact, many ancient texts exist that define Amaterasu as a male deity.

What is significant here is that Amaterasu was set as the Emperor’s ancestral deity during this span from Emperor Tenmu to Empress Jito. Empress Jito, a female sovereign, showed a tendency to identify her own existence with Amaterasu to heighten her authority; it is even possible to consider that the very formation of Amaterasu involved the projection and veneration of Empress Jito herself. In fact, Ise Jingu, the sanctuary enshrining Amaterasu, saw its faith begin during Empress Jito’s reign, and from there it was rapidly elevated to a state religion.

Furthermore, when a person possessing the right of imperial succession ascends as Emperor, a secret rite known as the Daijosai has been performed. To this day, no one knows exactly what rituals take place during the Daijosai. Specifically, the mystery of what rite transforms a successor into an Emperor is transmitted orally from Emperor to successor; no one other than the Emperor, the successor, and perhaps one other, knows it. Various books have been published regarding the Daijosai, but as they are all mere conjecture, they serve as little reference. Moreover, it was Emperor Tenmu who first established this Daijosai. Emperor Tenmu actively adopted the Ritsuryo system (legal codes), which the Tang Dynasty of China used as the foundation for building a strong nation, and aimed to construct Japan’s first Ritsuryo state. Consequently, these various matters were systematized and arranged one after another during his reign; it is a critically important turning point in history. The Ritsuryo system, simply put, is the governance of the country through "Ritsu" (penal code) and "Ryo" (administrative code). Here, the Emperor intended to unify the old traditions of the throne and the clans into the spirit of this skeletal framework, and this very intention became the wellspring from which the Kojiki emerged.

Although the Daijosai was interrupted many times by war and social upheaval, it was preserved. Most recently, it was performed after a hiatus of 200 years when Emperor Meiji ascended, continuing through Emperor Taisho, Emperor Showa, and Emperor Heisei, until November 2019, when the current Emperor ascended. In essence, the Daijosai was not practiced from the time of the legendary Emperor Jimmu, established as the first Emperor in the lineage, but was set as an Imperial rite starting from Emperor Tenmu. It is worthy of note that the systematization and arrangement of all things were linked to the emergence of Emperor Tenmu. Conversely, because the system and structure of Japanese history occurred around the axis of Emperor Tenmu, without an examination of this era, Japanese history and the various matters intertwined with it cannot be understood. In a sense, it is the era that demands the utmost caution.

Here, it is possible that hegemony moved from the powerful faction believing in the lineage of Takamimusuhi to a new force believing in the lineage of Amaterasu. This is visibly manifested in the Kojiki myths, where the arrangement is significantly different. The opening of the Kojiki has been published with an English translation by Kokugakuin University, effectively the university of Shinto, so I shall cite that version here. However, since academic readings always contain slippages, I hope to interpret it from my own unique perspective when the opportunity arises. I am already proceeding extensively with this in Japanese, but there are challenges difficult to render into English due to linguistic issues, so I shall contemplate how to handle this for a while.

[Original Text]

天地初發之時、

於高天原成神名、

天之御中主神。［訓高下天云阿麻。下效此］

次高御産巣日神。次神産巣日神。

此三柱神者、並獨神成坐而、隠身也。

[Japanese Reading]

天地初めて発りし時に、

高天原に成る神の名は、

天之御中主神。［訓高下天云阿麻。下效此］

次に高御産巣日神。次に神産巣日神。

此三柱の神は、並独神がみと成り坐して、身を隠しき。

[English]

When Heaven and Earth first became active,

a deity came into existence in Takamanohara 高天原.

Its name was Amenominakanushi no kami 天之御中主神.

Next Takamimusuhi no kami 高御産巣日神 appeared, and then, Kamumusuhi no kami 神産巣日神.

All three came into existence as solitary deities, and they hid their bodies.

Takamimusuhi is one of a pair involved with the two most important Japanese gods, referred to as "Musuhi no Kami" the other is Kamumusuhi. These are not gods accompanied by physical substance, but represent the non-separating function itself as a god. The Japanese concept of "Musuhi" is of the highest order, and thus nine times out of ten, people misunderstand it; however, it is one of the oldest concepts representing not separation, but non-separation. I frequently encounter people who misunderstand this, but the ancient term is not "Musubi [ムスビ]” but "Musuhi [ムスヒ].” Furthermore, "Musuhi" itself is not a single archetypal concept, but "Musu-Hi [ムス-ヒ].” Many consider the difference merely one of "Hi [ヒ]“ versus "Bi [ビ],” but "Musubi" does not stand as a concept. When I converse about Japan, I always watch closely to see whether the other party uses "Musuhi" or "Musubi" regrettably, the majority of Japanese people no longer understand this and read it almost exclusively as "Musubi."

The concept of "Musuhi" posits that "Hi" exists at the root, and by "Musu" [結い合う (bearing/binding)] it, all things are generated in non-separation. That is to say, there is a movement where "Hi" binds together—a movement difficult to verbalize—but as an image, it is generated at the threshold where a right-turning spiral and a left-turning spiral intertwine. This "Hi" is one of the oldest concepts, impossible to express in a single word. Two years ago, when I traveled to various places solely to examine this "Hi," I could have written a book of substantial thickness (it was so abstruse that I postponed its release).

Judging from my own investigations, I believe the concept of "Hi" derives from the Jomon period. Furthermore, Queen Himiko, who appears in the Wei Zhi (Records of Wei)—a precious Chinese document recording the oldest state of Japan around the 3rd century—was not a queen with the proper name "Himiko [ヒミコ/比彌子/卑弥呼] ,” but "Hi-Miko [ヒ-ミコ/比-彌子/卑-弥呼],” a "Miko" (Shamaness) who receives the "Hi." Therefore, I believe Himiko was succeeded from generation to generation in a form similar to imperial succession. It is also vital to note that the notation of "Musuhi" differs between the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki. In the Kojiki it is written as [産巣日], and in the Nihon Shoki as [産霊]. I will touch upon these matters little by little next year. For this is not something to be understood with the head, but grasped with the heart. Personally, I perceive that if this sensation were to be grasped by people of the English-speaking world, it might birth a new possibility—one that neutralizes the linguistic structure peculiar to them, which possesses subjects and copulas.

In the Kojiki, the myth begins by narrating that a god named Amenominakanushi first comes into being, followed by Takamimusuhi and Kamumusuhi. This refers to the operation where an actuation occurs from the fundamental root of life, and all things are generated non-separately in a place called Takamanohara. Thus, Takamanohara is a place that is omnipresent, yet possesses locality and inherent specificity.

From this place, gods come into being and are born one after another. In reality, the origins of Takamimusuhi and Amaterasu were originally separate gods worshipped by immigrants of different lineages, but at a certain point, they were Japanized and ultimately incorporated into the same genealogy. It simply means the headwaters of their continental roots were different. Therefore, if one reads the mythology in detail, the form emerges where the gods of Takamimusuhi's lineage and the gods of Amaterasu's lineage are distinct. Indeed, even now, among some who practice Shinto, there are spiritual movements that perceive Takamimusuhi as the true source rather than Amaterasu, scheming to correct the historical faith that has been biased toward Amaterasu and to restore the balance by reviving the faith of Takamimusuhi. This demonstrates strictly how strong the faith in Takamimusuhi was in ancient times, though it has now been consigned to oblivion.

I always find it difficult—or perhaps impossible—to convey Japanese mythology in languages other than Japanese. Yet, I also believe that if one discusses it while understanding that impossibility, there may be room for some essence to be conveyed. Why did I release this article today? Because tomorrow, the final day of this year, I intend to release an article weaving together my thoughts along with photographs taken while surveying various regions throughout 2025. Naturally, the material is too vast to disclose entirely (I have over 7,000 photos from this year alone...), but as mentioned at the beginning, I plan to disclose a unique perspective mixing historical analysis of the "Kuniyuzuri of Izumo [国譲り],” the most critical tale in Japanese mythology, from the viewpoint of exploring the origin of how Japanese myths were born.

The end of the year is finally approaching. I pray you all take care of your physical being and pass the time in tranquility.