お盆の伝統：インド・中国・日本のリミックスObon Traditions

Today marks the beginning of Obon, a custom unique to Japan. Originally, it was one of the ancestral memorial events held for several days centered on the 15th day of the 7th month in the lunar calendar, but nowadays it is most often observed in mid-August in the solar calendar, during which many people return to their hometowns, leaving the urban areas relatively quiet. In rural regions, relatives gather to welcome family members who have come back from the cities and to remember their ancestors. This brings back, if only temporarily, the now-vanishing scene of family members sitting together, and in many rural areas, most shops close during this time. As a result, if you travel during this period, you should be aware that, aside from tourist spots, most places may not be open.

In addition, Obon customs that developed uniquely in each part of Japan are celebrated in various forms as Obon festivals, such as bon odori (盆踊り) dances. These festivals were originally rooted in rituals to welcome the spirits of ancestors, but today they have largely taken on a temporary, commercial aspect aimed at attracting tourists. It is said that even in Tokyo in the past, people would bundle hemp stalks together to make torches, light them, and use them as guides so that the spirits of their ancestors would not lose their way to their homes. In the days before electricity, the mukaebi (迎え火, welcoming fires) blazed all over town, and their light was thought to guide ancestral spirits back home. That sight has now vanished, and for many people today, Obon is regarded merely as a holiday, yet it remains an important time to remember one’s ancestors.

In Japan, Obon was originally held on the 15th day of the 7th month in the lunar calendar, but after the Meiji era it shifted to the solar calendar, and today most companies schedule their summer holidays in mid-August. During this period, people living in cities make a great migration back to their hometowns, an event known as the “kisei rush” (帰省ラッシュ, homecoming rush). The origins of Obon date back to the mid-6th century, when Buddhism was introduced to Japan via China, bringing with it the Indian-origin Urabon (盂蘭盆) observance. The roots of Urabon lie in Indian Buddhism, based on the story of the Buddha’s disciple Maudgalyayana (目連, Mokuren) as told in the Urabon Sutra (盂蘭盆経). Mokuren, seeking to save his deceased mother who was suffering in the realm of hungry ghosts (gakido, 餓鬼道), implored the Buddha for salvation. The Buddha instructed him to make offerings of food and drink to monks on the 15th day of the 7th lunar month and to transfer the merit to his mother. Following this teaching, Mokuren performed acts of generosity and memorial offerings to many monks, and it is said his mother was released from the suffering of the hungry ghost realm. Inspired by this story, the annual Urabon-e (盂蘭盆会) in India was held on the 15th day of the 7th lunar month, offering food and drink to the sangha to save the spirits of deceased parents and ancestors.

Urabon was translated into Chinese, with the term “盂蘭盆” (urabon) deriving from the Sanskrit word ullambana (“being hung upside down in great suffering”). In the process of transmission to China, it became intertwined with Confucian filial piety and Taoist beliefs in spirits and deities, undergoing complex transformations. In that form, it was introduced to Japan during the Asuka period, where it merged with indigenous ancestor worship and folk beliefs to develop into the uniquely Japanese Obon. Thus, although modern Obon retains an Indian religious origin at its core, no visible traces of it remain, and it can be regarded as an entirely different cultural phenomenon.

Historical records such as the Nihon Shoki state that in the 14th year of Emperor Suiko’s reign (606), temples held an event called “toki no tsudoi” (時の集い, gathering of the season) on the 15th day of the 7th lunar month. This is considered the first documented Urabon-e in Japan, and from this time it became established as a court ceremony. By the Nara period, Urabon-e was positioned as one of the annual events of state Buddhism, and around the 15th day of the 7th lunar month, memorial rites for the ancestors of successive emperors were held at the imperial court and official temples. These were part of incorporating Buddhist ancestor memorials into state rituals, with the aim of uniting the protection of the nation with imperial ancestor veneration.

In the Heian period, Urabon-e became established in aristocratic society, and records in court diaries and literature show descriptions of comforting ancestral spirits. It gradually spread among the common people, merging with Japan’s ancient ancestor worship to develop into the distinct Obon. In Japan, it was believed that the spirits of ancestors returned home during this period, and mukaebi (welcoming fires) and okuribi (送り火, sending-off fires) were lit to guide them, while shoryodana (精霊棚, spirit altars) were set up with offerings of seasonal vegetables, fruit, and rice dumplings. Monks would also visit households to perform memorial sutra chanting known as tanagyo (棚経). In this way, Obon became separate from Urabon, changing in meaning and evolving into its modern form.

From the Kamakura to the Edo period, Obon became deeply rooted in village communities across Japan, serving as a central event in commoners’ lives. Performing arts elements such as bon odori were added; dancing through the night served as both entertainment and a way to strengthen community bonds, and also as an opportunity for young people to find marriage partners. Even today, events such as Nagasaki’s Shorei Nagashi (精霊流し, Spirit Boat Procession), Kyoto’s Gozan Okuribi (五山送り火, Five Mountains Sending-off Fires), Tokushima’s Awa Odori (阿波踊り), and Okinawa’s Eisa (エイサー) remain as representative examples, all originating from historical Obon customs. The modern homecoming rush also has its roots in the Edo period custom of yabuiri (藪入り), when live-in workers returned to their family homes during the New Year and Obon. For city dwellers in Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka, this was an important time to spend with family.

This long-cultivated current of Japanese culture began to change drastically after the Meiji Restoration, making it clear that the Restoration was a significant turning point in cutting off aspects of Japan’s historical continuity.

After the Meiji Restoration, the waves of Westernization and modernization profoundly affected Obon customs. The adoption of the solar calendar in Meiji 5 (1872) shifted Obon from the 15th day of the 7th lunar month to either July 15 or August 15 in the solar calendar, causing confusion as regions split between dates. In some parts of eastern Japan, the “shinbon” (新盆, July Obon) was observed, while in much of western Japan and the Tohoku region, the “month-delayed Obon” (tsuki-okure bon, 月遅れ盆) centered on August 15 became the norm. This division reflects not only differences in agricultural schedules, climate, and local rhythms of life, but also distinct cultural spheres.

Furthermore, modernization after the Meiji era greatly changed people’s lifestyles and how Obon was observed. Migrants from rural areas to the cities began returning home during Obon to visit graves, and during the period of high economic growth after World War II, this mass movement became a social phenomenon known as the “homecoming rush.” The expansion of railways and highways during this time helped establish Obon as a nationwide annual family gathering. Moreover, because August 15 is the anniversary of the end of World War II in Japan, this day has also come to be regarded as a special occasion for both war memorials and ancestor veneration.

From the latter half of the 20th century onward, traditional events such as bon odori and local festivals have been promoted as tourist attractions, growing into nationally known events. Tokushima’s Awa Odori, Akita’s Nishimonai Bon Odori (西馬音内盆踊り), Fukushima’s Soma Nomaoi (相馬野馬追), and Okinawa’s Eisa now draw large crowds to regions that are usually quiet at other times of year. On the other hand, in urban areas the custom has been simplified to family units quietly visiting graves or making offerings at household altars. In recent years, the combined effects of the nuclear family system, depopulation, and aging have led to a decline in large-scale community Obon events, and many people now regard it simply as a holiday. At the same time, efforts by municipalities and tourism organizations to preserve and revive traditional events have intensified. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, new forms such as online memorial services and remote grave visits have emerged, reflecting attempts to adapt ancestor memorial practices to the times, though these may also be seen as signs of cultural decline.

In contemporary Japan, while not everyone strongly recognizes the religious background, the essence of Obon as a period to remember ancestors and reaffirm family bonds remains unchanged. Acts such as mukaebi and okuribi, offerings, and grave visits still carry within them the unbroken current of ancestral beliefs that has continued for over a thousand years. The Urabon philosophy originating in Indian Buddhism, transformed in China, and merged with Japan’s own ancestor worship, continues to live on in modern society in altered forms.

With ancestral belief drifting away from daily life, and a sense of belonging hard to find in the cities, this season can feel as though the ancient ancestors are trying to convey something to us, who have let go of what is truly important since the Meiji era. Around this time of year, as night falls, the summer heat begins to ease, and the first signs of the typhoon season start to appear.