神社合祀令と熊野の自然破壊The Shrine Merger Order and the Destruction of Kumano

In this article, we explore the devastating environmental destruction that took place in Wakayama Prefecture—one of Japan’s most naturally rich regions—at the beginning of the 20th century.

Many people are unaware that the famous Kumano Kodo, now a UNESCO World Heritage site and a major pilgrimage destination, has undergone drastic changes over the past 160 years.

Once home to lush natural landscapes and countless sites of ancient Japanese spirituality, Kumano faced an existential crisis in the early 20th century.

While the importance of Kumano’s natural environment is increasingly recognized today, what we see now is actually a landscape left in ruins after extensive destruction. The key turning point in this environmental and cultural devastation was the Shrine Merger Order (神社合祀令, jinja goshirei), issued by the government around 1906 during the Meiji era.

This policy aimed to consolidate the countless small shrines that once existed throughout Japan under centralized state control. The primary targets were the numerous small village shrines—historically significant sites that nurtured local culture and belief systems. The government sought to eliminate these diverse, localized faiths and establish State Shinto (国家神道), a unified national religious system.

Understanding this historical context requires recognizing the diverse nature of Japanese spirituality. Traditionally, Japanese religious beliefs varied greatly depending on location, with different deities worshiped from region to region. However, after the establishment of the Meiji government in 1868, a powerful State Shinto system emerged, placing the Imperial institution—especially Ise Grand Shrine—at the pinnacle of religious authority.

Its aim was to have the people revere the emperor as a unifying symbol and to shape a single, cohesive citizenry for the state. The purposes were to build an economy of the scale of the Euro-American powers, and to prepare for war.

However, the vast diversity of local deities and practices hindered the creation of a single, unified national identity. Even 40 years after the Meiji government’s establishment, this lack of religious and cultural cohesion remained a challenge.

To resolve this, the government, led by the cabinet, saw a way out in destroying and unifying belief, and issued a violent national policy to tear down countless shrines. In short, it did away with the diversity of shrine belief: each town or village was allowed to build only one shrine, and all others were abolished and merged.

At first glance, this may seem like a move toward modern rationalism, but from the perspective of traditional Japanese spirituality, the consequences were severe. The selection of deities for the newly merged shrines was not decided by local communities but by government officials, many of whom were deeply influenced by Ise Grand Shrine. As a result, the worship of diverse deities was increasingly suppressed.

The impact was devastating—not only for religious diversity but also for the rich natural landscapes surrounding shrines, local traditions, and indigenous cultural practices. Wakayama Prefecture was hit the hardest, followed by neighboring Mie Prefecture.

Why did the government focus its intervention so intensely on Wakayama and Mie? The answer lies in their geographical and spiritual significance.

The mountainous regions of Nara, Wakayama, and Mie, known internationally as Kumano, were home to some of Japan’s most sacred sites, deeply intertwined with nature-based beliefs. Because the land was so richly natural, countless faiths lived there.

Furthermore, these areas were isolated by rugged mountains, making them historically difficult for rulers to control. Throughout Japanese history, resistance movements often originated in such remote regions, beyond the reach of government surveillance. For the Meiji authorities, imposing strict control over Kumano was a political necessity.

At the same time, another motive behind the forced shrine closures was economic. The government sought to clear vast forests for industrial expansion. Since ancient times, shrines had been surrounded by sacred forests (鎮守の森, chinju no mori), which played a crucial role in protecting local ecosystems.

These forests acted as natural barriers against deforestation, river pollution, and soil erosion, as they were considered sacred and thus untouchable.

However, this traditional ecological balance conflicted with the modernization agenda. Here the aims of the state, which wanted to turn nature into industry, coincided with those of Ise Grand Shrine, which wanted to establish itself as a unified religion, and merciless national intervention followed.

Yet, not everyone accepted this destruction without resistance. One of the strongest opponents of the shrine merger policy was a sage born in Wakayama: Kumagusu Minakata (南方熊楠), known as a superman.