道元論5On Dogen, Part 5
In our previous discourse, we unveiled the invisible fiction that has governed Kyoto since its inception—an entity that persists even today. This hidden essence, which one might call the hidden Kyoto, or the shadow capital, is none other than Mount Hiei, looming over the city’s eastern flank. Mount Hiei is far more than a mere geographical feature; it was a formidable architecture of power that defined an era, an all-encompassing structure that wielded religious, economic, and military authority as a singular, massive urban function.
The establishment of this Mount Hiei system, centered at Enryaku-ji—the head temple of the Tendai school of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism founded by Saicho—became the primordial source for the Heian-kyo system that spread across the valley below. The true nature of the Heian period (794–1185) lies in the union of these two architectures, functioning as the front and back of a single coin.
Crucially, in resonance with the movement to unify these two invisible structures, a significant shift occurred in the landscape of faith, rising in opposition to the Heian-kyo–Mount Hiei axis. For several days, I have contemplated this vital spiritual movement: the emergence of the Jodo sect under Honen (1133–1212) and Shinran (1173–1263) as a counterpoint to the Tendai of Mount Hiei, and subsequently, the zen of Dogen (1200–1253) as a further response to both. Yet, we must recognize that an absolute factor intervenes in this lineage: the rise of the samurai.
In other words, the ascent of zen in Japan cannot be disentangled from the ascent of the warrior class. Rather, the two emerged as the most potent forces to challenge the Heian-kyo–Mount Hiei system—a vast mechanism of power that had reigned for centuries—by unifying within a new structural paradigm. However, this intersection of the zen–samurai architecture did not occur at the dawn of their existence; it was born of historical necessity. To explore the crossroads of faith—a realm that never surfaces through a mere superficial gaze at history—we must focus our lens on a father and son of the Taira clan who dared to challenge the crumbling monolith of Mount Hiei. As this history is profoundly intricate, I shall proceed with a deep inquiry, reviewing the essential points based on the insights shared over the past few days.
First, in 1156, a rift within the imperial family regarding the succession to the throne served as a catalyst. This internal fracture, entwined with the career ambitions of the nobility and various vested interests, led to a violent civil war that divided the Court, which then held political sovereignty. In response to a request from the 77th Emperor, Go-Shirakawa (r. 1155–1158), the Taira clan crushed the forces of the opposing Retired Emperor Sutoku. Having emerged victorious, Emperor Go-Shirakawa entrusted the post-war settlements to his close confidant and vassal, Shinzei (1106–1160), establishing him as a new autocrat of the public sphere. And there was one other who stepped into the spotlight under Go-Shirakawa’s autocratic regime: Taira no Kiyomori (1118–1181), the head of the Taira clan.
At this time, Taira no Kiyomori’s father, Taira no Tadamori (1096–1153), had already passed away. Under this new leader, who aspired to elevate the status of the warrior class, the Taira’s power surged to a level that the denizens of Heian-kyo could no longer ignore.
However, to truly inaugurate the era of the samurai, there were far too many obstacles to overcome. No matter how much the Heian-kyo system had decayed and collapsed, its vested interests were deployed on a national scale. Merely grasping a single district within the current Kyoto city—the old Heian-kyo—did not mean the era of the warrior had arrived. The most immediate necessity was the economic independence of the samurai. At the time, the old powers—the nobility and Mount Hiei—owned countless estates known as shoen (荘園) across the country. The Hiei system, in particular, had realized an innovative, self-sustaining mechanism of revenue, centrally collecting land taxes from thousands of locations nationwide, making it an absolute entity that eclipsed the finances of the Imperial Court.
Using this vast wealth as capital, Mount Hiei seized control of the trade route via Fukui and Lake Biwa on the Sea of Japan side—one of the primary channels between Japan and the Song dynasty of China. They maximized their profits by centralizing the flow of goods into the capital and collecting transit tolls. In truth, this mechanism lives on today; to reach Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei, one is charged a high toll simply to enter the mountain. Since religious corporations in Japan are not required to pay taxes, the revenue collected by Mount Hiei even now is not returned to the citizens of Kyoto at the foot of the mountain. The origin of this architecture dates back to the Heian-kyo era, but Mount Hiei further expanded its reach into the urban areas, operating money-lending businesses by exploiting its position as the guardian of the capital. I perceive the true nature of Mount Hiei as the earliest form of a conglomerate.
Similarly, since the nobility held estates in various regions to secure their own interests, the samurai had to establish an economic foundation through their own unique channels if they were to truly rise. Without this, they would remain nothing more than a combat group consumed by the imperial family and the aristocracy. Herein lies the reason why the Taira clan was able to rise ahead of all other warrior houses. And that source begins with Taira no Tadamori, the father of Kiyomori.
It is thought that Taira no Tadamori himself did not possess the same talent for political hegemony as his son, Kiyomori. Nevertheless, within the unstable Heian-kyo system of the time, he earned the profound trust of Retired Emperor Toba (1103–1156), who reigned from behind the scenes. Retired Emperor Toba was the father of Emperor Go-Shirakawa and is known as the figure who perfected the system of cloistered rule (insei) in Japanese history.
To put it simply, insei (院政), or cloistered rule, was a structure created because the role of the Emperor was overwhelmed by daily rituals; to escape this and retain the substance of power, the sovereign would abdicate during his lifetime, transfer the throne to another successor, and continue to hold political authority as a Retired Emperor (Joko or In). This system was originally devised by Toba’s father, Retired Emperor Shirakawa (1053–1129), and established between the late 11th and early 12th centuries. it was a new governing mechanism by the imperial family that rose to replace the declining nobility who had dominated political power since the founding of Heian-kyo. Consequently, those who ascended the throne one after another would retire to become Retired Emperors, securing interests and power through cloistered rule, and the system devolved into a distorted structure of private desire and indulgence. In other words, there was little merit in occupying the throne during this era; the position of Emperor was merely a stepping stone to becoming the supreme authority of the cloistered government.
In the time of Taira no Tadamori, a samurai was still regarded as little more than a watchdog for the nobility; holding political power was nothing but a distant dream. However, the rise of this cloistered system, born of imperial self-interest, brought unexpected attention to the samurai, who had previously been disregarded. The primary figure in this shift was Retired Emperor Toba. As the newly reigning supreme authority, the Emperor and Retired Emperor faced constant risks of assassination over succession and power. Thus, in the 1120s, Retired Emperor Toba organized a warrior group solely for his personal protection. These were called the hokumen no bushi (北面の武士), the warriors of the north face, and their leader was Taira no Tadamori. This was the true curtain-raiser for the ascent of the samurai.
Taira no Tadamori risked his life to protect Retired Emperor Toba on numerous occasions. Whenever Toba’s interests across the country were threatened, Tadamori would take the lead, heading out with his Taira warriors to suppress the opposition. He became an indispensable figure to Toba. In recognition of these achievements, Toba placed absolute trust in Tadamori, favoring him despite the disapproval of the surrounding nobility. The turning point came in 1129, when Tadamori was thirty-three. Shortly after Toba began his cloistered rule, Tadamori was appointed as an innokinshin (院近臣), a close associate of the Retired Emperor. In the architecture of Toba’s cloistered government, Taira no Tadamori—not a traditional noble—had become essential.
This promotion was an unheard-of advancement for a samurai, shocking those around him and inciting the wrath and jealousy of the nobility, who cared for nothing but their own status. Yet, the most significant aspect of this cloistered rule was that Retired Emperor Toba appointed Taira no Tadamori as the overseer of a certain mechanism to generate his own wealth. That place was called Kanzaki-no-sho, located in Saga Prefecture, Kyushu, far from Heian-kyo. I spent time last summer investigating the traces of Kanzaki-no-sho; though little remains today, it was an immensely important site for generating gold during the Heian period.
First, Kanzaki-no-sho was not the land of a noble or a monk; it was positioned as an authoritative site under the direct jurisdiction of Retired Emperor Toba, with the sovereign himself—the highest power in Japan—as its owner. Kanzaki-no-sho was situated at a strategic point for trade facing the Ariake Sea, possessing a unique geographical advantage near Hakata in Fukuoka, the primary trade route from the continent and the peninsula. Most importantly, it was a sanctuary where government officials could not interfere. However, at that time, Dazaifu (Fukuoka), Japan’s largest official trade gateway, was located not far from Kanzaki-no-sho.
Because Dazaifu was the official window for trade, it was, in modern terms, the front line of the bureaucratic mechanism. Consequently, selling goods through Dazaifu incurred tax collection and necessitated the distribution of interests to the nobility. Simply put, Retired Emperor Toba was dissatisfied with this system. He wanted to pocket 100% of the trade revenue directly, bypassing taxes and the distribution of interests. The central figure in this international trade was the Song dynasty of China, which was the overwhelmingly dominant civilization of the time.
Retired Emperor Toba believed that if he traded directly with Song merchants through his own land at Kanzaki-no-sho, bypassing Dazaifu, he could monopolize the profits without paying commissions to officials or nobles. To speak plainly, he envisioned a form of extra-legal direct trade. However, if he were to conduct this openly himself, it would jeopardize his authority. Therefore, as a camouflage, he appointed Taira no Tadamori—a samurai who had not been domesticated by the systems and interests of the old guard—to stand at the forefront. Thus, as the 1130s began, Taira no Tadamori was appointed as the administrator of Kanzaki-no-sho.
The motive behind selecting the leader of the samurai was to deter nobles, officials, or merchants who might try to interfere with the interests of this imperial sanctuary. But the greatest problem for Toba was the presence of pirates that plagued maritime trade. At the time, many pirates existed in the waters around Japan, but the most problematic area was the Seto Inland Sea, the maritime route for transporting goods from Kyushu to the Court in Kyoto. This sea contained countless islands and had long been the autonomous territory of pirates; thus, trade at the time was a life-threatening endeavor, and being plundered by pirates was a daily occurrence. Seeking to secure 100% of the profits, Retired Emperor Toba sought to use the Taira clan to suppress these pirates.
The officials at Dazaifu, the official trade window, were enraged by this unilateral move by the Retired Emperor. In fact, Dazaifu officials, viewing the independent trade between samurai and Song merchants at Kanzaki-no-sho as a problem, attempted to raid the estate and seize the goods. However, an incident occurred where Taira no Tadamori repelled them through a display of military force. Though Dazaifu was furious and sought to sue Tadamori, they were ultimately powerless because the figure standing behind him was the supreme authority himself. Thus, Retired Emperor Toba proceeded with this outrageous act, abusing the cloistered system to develop a monopoly on interests and using the proceeds to maintain his power and indulge in pleasure. At the same time, because Tadamori devoted himself entirely to maintaining these interests, a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity arrived for the Taira clan.
As the administrator of Kanzaki-no-sho, Tadamori found himself with immense wealth—unthinkable for a samurai—even after providing the kickbacks to Retired Emperor Toba. Furthermore, he gained the opportunity to establish direct relationships with merchants from both Japan and the Song dynasty, centered around Hakata, a connection he had never had before. This allowed the Taira clan to be the first to obtain information and new technologies concerning international and domestic affairs. This was something the nobility, confined to their mansions in Heian-kyo and focused only on maintaining existing interests, could not achieve.
Moreover, Tadamori’s efforts year by year yielded results that increased Toba’s trust. As the official representative of the Retired Emperor, he gained the rights to the privileged lands of Kyushu and devised methods to accumulate funds through clandestine trade, which was common at the time. In essence, it was because of the foundation Tadamori built in this gray zone that his son, Taira no Kiyomori, was later able to reign as the public ruler. When the era shifts greatly, everything accelerates; it is noteworthy that it took only two generations for the Taira to grasp hegemony, a feat accomplished effectively by this father and son, Tadamori and Kiyomori.
Having secured the financial lifeline and interests of the supreme authority, Retired Emperor Toba, Taira no Tadamori continued to rise, building the foundation for the samurai to hold political power. A decisive moment in the history of the warrior class occurred in 1132, when Tadamori achieved the rank of tenjobito (殿上人), a courtier permitted to enter the palace. This was a result of Tadamori pouring the vast profits from trade into the service of Retired Emperor Toba, completing and presenting magnificent temples and a thousand Buddhas in Heian-kyo. The rank of tenjobito meant being part of the limited, privileged group allowed to speak directly with the sovereign. Because an upstart samurai had ascended to a position that most nobles could not reach in a lifetime, an incident even occurred where nobles of the old guard, jealous of this extraordinary promotion, attempted to assassinate Tadamori. In other words, at this moment, Tadamori had become a new noble.
As a new noble, Tadamori continued to fulfill his duties steadfastly, and in the 1140s, he was appointed as the governor of provinces rich in resources and wealth, such as Bizen and Harima. Bizen is the southeastern part of present-day Okayama, and Harima is the southwestern part of present-day Hyogo—crucial points along the final major maritime route leading to Heian-kyo along the Seto Inland Sea. By this stage, Tadamori had secured hegemony over the Seto Inland Sea, connecting the primary trade hub of Kanzaki-no-sho in Saga to the capital, Heian-kyo. Furthermore, in this process, the Taira had brought the pirates who infested the Seto Inland Sea into submission; there was no longer anyone who could resist the Taira, the favorites of the era.
As a result, by 1148, Taira no Tadamori was promoted to a rank equivalent to a modern cabinet minister. Until his death in 1153 at the age of fifty-eight, he established the strongest economic foundation and a high political status for the rise of the samurai in a single generation. Though he rarely receives much attention in history, it is no exaggeration to say that without the life of the seemingly understated father, Tadamori, it is uncertain whether the era of the samurai would have ever arrived. One cannot speak of the samurai without knowing the life of this man. Tadamori was a person of character who lived his life to the fullest without losing his way to personal greed. Consequently, the people of Heian-kyo and other regions, who knew that the members of the old guard moved only by selfish desire, were won over by Tadamori and showed him respect. This became the driving force in establishing a new image: that the samurai were better than the nobility.
Thus, inheriting the achievements of his father, Tadamori, the son, Taira no Kiyomori—a charismatic genius with extraordinary political, economic, and military talent—became the leader of the new era.
Three years after Tadamori’s death, Retired Emperor Toba, who had held absolute power, also passed away in 1156. This left the position of supreme authority vacant, and it can be understood as the beginning of an internal struggle within the imperial family. This was the start of the civil war between Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Retired Emperor Sutoku, as mentioned at the beginning. Incidentally, both were sons of Retired Emperor Toba and thus were brothers.
Going back, when Retired Emperor Toba abdicated and became the Retired Emperor in 1123, Sutoku (1119–1164) became the Emperor. However, after Toba’s death, Sutoku, who knew the allure of cloistered rule, had already performed the outrageous act in 1141 of abdicating to let his three-year-old son, Emperor Konoe, take the throne while he himself entered cloistered rule as the Retired Emperor. From this alone, one can see how cloistered rule was driven by private interest and a lust for power, as a three-year-old child could not possibly govern. Thus, the 76th Emperor Konoe ascended at age three, only to die young at seventeen in 1155. Emperor Konoe was also a son of Retired Emperor Toba and later became the adopted son of Retired Emperor Sutoku before taking the throne.
This suddenly sparked a succession crisis. Here, Retired Emperor Sutoku clashed with the future Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who, though also born to Retired Emperor Toba like Sutoku and Konoe, had been raised with no connection to the succession as the fourth son. To simplify this complex situation: the first prince of Retired Emperor Toba was Emperor Sutoku (r. 1123–1142). During this period, the second prince died at age five (1124–1129), and when the third prince also died in 1143, the succession did not go to the fourth prince, Go-Shirakawa, but toward Emperor Konoe, a half-brother. However, when Emperor Konoe also died, Go-Shirakawa became the sole primary successor. At this point, the elder brother, Retired Emperor Sutoku—who had already abdicated to rule from the shadows—and the younger brother, Emperor Go-Shirakawa, clashed violently over the substance of power.
The crux of the matter was that the intentions of Retired Emperor Sutoku, who wanted to manipulate the government through cloistered rule, and Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who wanted to seize the reins of government himself, could never align.
Thus, in 1156, a civil war triggered by this imperial feud broke out. It was an overwhelming victory for the side of Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who entrusted military affairs to Taira no Kiyomori. Retired Emperor Sutoku was driven from Heian-kyo and exiled to Sanuki (present-day Kagawa), never to return to the capital. At this moment, the relationship between Retired Emperor Toba and Taira no Tadamori was succeeded by the bond between Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Taira no Kiyomori, ushering in a new era.
What is fascinating here is that the victorious Emperor Go-Shirakawa appointed Taira no Kiyomori as the head of Dazaifu, the official trade window. By the Taira seizing control of both Dazaifu and Kanzaki-no-sho, they obtained the supreme legal position to prioritize, manage, and acquire almost all trade with the Song dynasty in Kyushu. If we consider that the father, Tadamori, had gained profits in a manner close to clandestine trade, the son, Kiyomori, took full authority over major trade from an official position of state office.
In 1158, Emperor Go-Shirakawa abdicated to become the Retired Emperor and began his cloistered rule upon the recommendation of his vassal, Shinzei. Here, a new architecture consisting of “Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa–Shinzei–Taira no Kiyomori” was established. However, the old powers—“the nobility–imperial family–Enryaku-ji”—reacted violently, fearing the loss of their interests. Taking advantage of this, in 1159, the old guard rallied around Emperor Nijo, to whom the throne had been transferred, and a second civil war broke out as they opposed the new faction of the cloistered government. While Kiyomori was away, an attack on Heian-kyo was carried out, leading to the death of the political autocrat Shinzei. Kiyomori then raised his army and swept away the enemy forces. Thus, a vacancy opened in the political position held by Shinzei within the Go-Shirakawa–Shinzei–Kiyomori architecture, and Kiyomori, possessing overwhelming military power, moved in to fill it.
At this point, Taira no Kiyomori held military authority (his original warrior background), control over trade interests from Kyushu to Heian-kyo, and political sovereignty. He emerged as the hegemon of the new era. And as the preeminent ruler of this new age, Kiyomori finally moved toward a confrontation with Mount Hiei, the true master of Heian-kyo. It is vital to note that the clash between these two was not over religion or faith, but over the interests of trade. This is the truth of Mount Hiei.
Kiyomori’s control over Dazaifu and Kanzaki-no-sho in Kyushu, along with his submission of the pirates in the Seto Inland Sea, reduced the risks associated with the trade route passing through that sea—the greatest problem for the rulers of Heian-kyo. Conversely, it was precisely because of these risks that the primary trade route with the Song had previously been concentrated in Fukui on the Sea of Japan side, bypassing the Seto Inland Sea. From there, goods flowed through Lake Biwa and Mount Hiei into Heian-kyo—a route established by Mount Hiei. With the appearance of the Taira and the suppression of the Seto Inland Sea, the situation changed. There was no longer a need for the detour through the Sea of Japan and Lake Biwa; transporting goods directly from Kyushu to Heian-kyo via the Seto Inland Sea was faster. For Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa, in particular, it was far more profitable to collaborate with Kiyomori to develop and maintain a new trade route than to have the majority of his profits taken by the untouchable Mount Hiei. As the desires of the era’s rulers intersected, Mount Hiei, beginning to be left behind by the times, fell into a state of fury.
The new trade route proposed by Taira no Kiyomori was revolutionary. He intended to bring large merchant ships directly into Kobe via the Seto Inland Sea and then transport goods up the Yodo River in Osaka to Heian-kyo. This meant that for Mount Hiei, which controlled the vast interests tied to the route via Wakasa and Tsuruga in Fukui—including the establishment of customs posts and delivery services—most of their profits would vanish. Because the trade route they monopolized was shaken by the emergence of a single samurai, Mount Hiei began to pressure the Court through the nobility of the old guard, using thousands of armed monk-soldiers (sohei).
Another factor was that the economy of the old guard on the side of Mount Hiei was based on land transactions and barter, where goods like cloth and rice were traded directly in the markets of Heian-kyo. However, Kiyomori did not propose barter; he advocated for the introduction of a monetary economy using Song coins imported in bulk from the Song dynasty. By attempting to build a society in Heian-kyo that settled transactions with money, he began to create a new, free economic sphere not bound to the land. From the perspective of Mount Hiei, whose source of power was land dominance, this was a provocative act that meant the destruction of their own governing structure. Indeed, the circulation of Song coins caused immediate price fluctuations in Heian-kyo, leading to inflation that lowered land values. Some see this as the primary cause that weakened the massive power structure of Mount Hiei.
And Taira no Kiyomori knew better than anyone that to build a new era, he had to destroy Mount Hiei even more than the nobility. Consequently, the brunt of the confrontation moved toward Echizen (eastern Fukui Prefecture), which held the Wakasa-Tsuruga route—the hotbed of Mount Hiei’s interests. Please keep in the corner of your mind that Eihei-ji, which Dogen would later found, is located in Echizen, at this crossroads of conflict.
Mount Hiei, its interests beginning to crumble, claimed that the appearance of Taira no Kiyomori was an enemy of the Buddha. Thousands of monk-soldiers descended upon Heian-kyo carrying divine palanquins, rioting in the streets. Yet, this was the appearance of a force whose interests lay bare, with religion as a facade. The reality of their fury lay in the fact that the profits from Mount Hiei’s logistics routes had plummeted due to Kiyomori’s emergence. And since Kiyomori could not confront Mount Hiei with spiritual or religious authority—such as prayers or divine power—he attempted to weaken them by first neutralizing the economic sphere that supported the mountain.
As a result, the violent militarization of the monk-soldiers intensified, and they became, in effect, a radical armed faction. Thus, the era arrived where the rising warrior house of the Taira, led by Kiyomori, and the old guard, led by Mount Hiei, entered into total conflict. This eventually led toward the chaos of the next generation’s struggle for hegemony between warrior houses, and Heian-kyo entered a history where it would lose its function as the capital.
To be continued.