国家神道とスピリチュアルな神道の交点：大本教Intersection of State Shinto and Spiritual Shinto

The Meiji era marked a significant turning point in which Shinto acquired distinct religious characteristics and took substantial strides towards systematization. What became known as State Shinto (国家神道) and Shrine Shinto (神社神道) collectively represented a historically pivotal endeavor toward the religionization of Shinto. However, it is also essential to understand the complexity with which Shinto simultaneously absorbed spiritual dimensions during this period—an understanding indispensable for approaching the fundamental question of what Shinto truly is. Indeed, State Shinto’s religious form is the confluence of countless intricate lineages.

While many angles exist for discussing this complexity, one aspect I have consistently emphasized is the presence of Oomoto-kyo (大本教). Originating in Kokugaku (国学), a scholarly movement that emerged in the mid-Edo period as a counter-reaction against Confucianism and Buddhism, this major modern religious movement did not suddenly arise in modernity. Instead, its formation took place across Japanese history, and its steps toward systematization were refined throughout the Edo period. A crucial recognition here is the intense resistance to “systematization,” which I touched upon in yesterday’s article. The mainstream Confucianism of the Edo period, primarily supported by Zhu Xi Neo-Confucianism, along with Buddhism, fully systematized since the medieval period, evolved into a sophisticated philosophy of governance, sustaining the Tokugawa Shogunate’s system for generations.

The powerful backlash against this unified, robust system gave birth to Kokugaku. Initially, the Tokugawa Shogunate’s centralized system was not exceptionally strong due to decentralization among various feudal domains. However, by the mid-Edo period, as the system itself began to deteriorate, the central governance pressure intensified significantly. This meant a corresponding increase in the intensity of “systematization” (embodied by Zhu Xi Neo-Confucianism), prompting a reaction that traced its lineage from Kamo no Mabuchi (賀茂真淵) to Norinaga Motoori (本居宣長). Yet, the situation changed drastically after Norinaga Motoori’s death.

While Kokugaku scholars are generally viewed through such lineages, I personally perceive considerable differences in the thinking of scholars before and after Norinaga Motoori, whose ideas initiated distinct movements that, while inheriting historical achievements, evolved uniquely through individual talent. The pioneer of this new movement was the Kokugaku scholar Atsutane Hirata (平田篤胤).

Although Hirata is classified as a Kokugaku scholar, he is more accurately identified as the founder of a lineage known as Fukko Shinto or Ko Shinto (復古神道／古神道). Rather than embodying scholarly traits like Kamo no Mabuchi or Norinaga Motoori, Hirata possessed remarkable abilities as a diverse religious leader. While I personally find many aspects of Hirata’s ideas difficult to agree with, there is no denying the immense impact of his charismatic personality on the era. Particularly significant was his initiative to revive Shinto by uniting the two major Kyoto-based factions—the Yoshida family’s Yoshida Shinto (吉田神道) and the Shirakawa family’s Hakke Shinto (伯家神道)—which had long been divided. Hirata thus essentially established himself as the new king of Shinto. During this time, Shinto’s complex lineage diverged and developed independently across Japan. However, the Edo Shogunate mandated that any new Shinto sect needed permission from the Yoshida and Shirakawa families, effectively enabling Atsutane Hirata to reshape Shinto’s Edo-period form.

Hirata’s actions can be likened to the new interpretations of Confucianism developed by Northern and Southern Song Dynasty scholars, later called Neo-Confucianism (新儒教) in China, making Hirata’s movement something akin to a Neo-Shinto (新神道). As if responding to this new wave, from the late Edo period, marked by a growing sense of unrest, movements known as new religions began emerging in various regions. Notable among these were Konkokyo (金光教), Tenrikyo (天理教), and Kurozumikyo (黒住教). It is important to note that each began with local leaders and was deeply rooted in regional contexts. Furthermore, these movements cannot easily be equated with Shinto due to their complex mixtures of Confucianism, Buddhism, and other elements, as well as strong spiritual dimensions—such as spirit possession predicting turbulent times ahead. Nevertheless, sensing the imminent decline of Tokugawa governance as the Bakumatsu upheaval approached, many individuals joined these new religions.

Eventually, following the Meiji Restoration of 1868 and the establishment of a new government, policies were enacted to position Shinto as the foundation of the state, simultaneously providing official recognition to these new religions. This led to their systematization and incorporation into the national framework. As these new religions enjoyed the support of the new government, their follower counts expanded significantly, leading to substantial growth. While this trend persisted for some time, a movement emerged in a village surrounded by the mountains of Tanba (丹波), becoming a collective representation of these new religious movements. This marked the origin of Oomoto-kyo.

Although the area is now incorporated into Kyoto Prefecture, it culturally differs significantly from the limited image of Kyoto typically held, primarily referring to Kyoto City. Places related to Nao Deguchi (出口なお) and Oomoto-kyo—such as Fukuchiyama (福知山市), Ayabe (綾部市), and Kameoka (亀岡市)—belong to a different cultural sphere. In this mountainous village, a spirit possession occurred, with a deity inhabiting the elderly woman Nao Deguchi, marking the beginning of Oomoto-kyo. While this movement symbolized the revival of ancient female shamans (巫女, miko), it initially remained at the level of folk belief with Nao Deguchi revered privately. Nonetheless, as rumors spread widely, a young man gifted as a religious leader visited Nao Deguchi, catalyzing significant developments and eventually unsettling Japan leading up to World War II. This man was Kisaburo Ueda (上田喜三郎), later known as Onisaburo Deguchi (出口王仁三郎), founder and leader of Oomoto-kyo.

With the meeting of Nao Deguchi, who embodied ancient shamanistic spirituality, and Kisaburo Ueda, who possessed exceptional skills as a modern religious leader, Oomoto-kyo rapidly transcended its status as a mere rural folk belief in Tanba. Nao Deguchi documented countless prophecies through a method known as ofudesaki (御筆先), wherein she transcribed messages directly from the divine. Notably, her prediction of the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) significantly increased followers. Though their encounter had not yet occurred at this point, Nao Deguchi’s prominence drew attention, eventually leading to their fateful meeting.

Kisaburo Ueda originally had no particular interest in religion, but after experiencing a period of hardship, he resolved to reinvent himself and step forward onto a spiritual path. In 1898, when he fully embraced this new direction, he encountered a mysterious figure with spiritual powers, subsequently undergoing a week-long spiritual retreat in the mountains of Kameoka. There, Kisaburo had a profound mystical experience that awakened him to his spiritual mission, and he dedicated himself entirely to that path. Realizing that he was destined to be a savior for Japan during turbulent times, Kisaburo entrusted his business to his younger brother and embarked on a grand journey to seek the spiritual essence of Shinto.

Traveling across the country, Kisaburo sought teachings from various individuals, deeply familiarizing himself during this journey with the new form of Shinto derived from the Edo-era scholar Atsutane Hirata. He soon began independently propagating his teachings around the Sonobe area near Kameoka. The following year, guided by divine intervention, he visited Nao Deguchi. Subsequently marrying her daughter, Sumi Deguchi, he adopted the name Onisaburo Deguchi and embarked on founding Oomoto-kyo. The intersection of Nao Deguchi, embodying the era’s spiritual essence, and Onisaburo Deguchi sparked a unique movement from the mountainous Tanba region, distinctly separate from the State Shinto movements occurring centrally. Due to its isolated rural origins, this movement was largely unnoticed by the Tokyo-based Meiji government.

With the emergence of Onisaburo, a figure of immense religious charisma comparable to Atsutane Hirata, Meiji-era Shinto was dramatically shaken. To understand why Onisaburo could establish an independent form of Shinto distinct from State Shinto, one must consider the existence of kotodama (言霊), the spirit of words. From Hirata’s time, Kokugaku scholars had greatly advanced their understanding of kotodama, significantly influencing subsequent Shinto practitioners. Before this, kotodama had been regarded as sacred knowledge strictly passed down within specific clans or individuals, never shared externally. Today, while the concept of kotodama has gained some international recognition, it remains difficult to grasp fully, with mastery virtually impossible even over a lifetime. As with many esoteric practices, misusing kotodama is dangerous; hence, historically, great emphasis has been placed on the user’s character and spirituality.

Although I myself understand a little about kotodama, I neither discuss it openly nor practice it. Yet, someone completely removed from kotodama like me can understand it only due to the era linking Atsutane Hirata and Onisaburo Deguchi. Hirata’s influence, in particular, reached nationwide, inspiring numerous individuals to establish their unique religious viewpoints. Many traveled throughout remote regions to propagate their teachings, living ascetic lifestyles akin to mountain ascetics (修験者), settling in isolated villages away from urban centers. Because these activities were rarely recorded historically, it remains challenging to grasp their full extent. However, given the significantly weakened governing power of the Shogunate and feudal domains by the late Edo period, I believe such wandering individuals were relatively numerous. Even samurai, previously subjected to strict movement restrictions, often abandoned their domains (脱藩, dappan) to freely traverse the country.

In response to this new era, local religious figures moved around with unprecedented freedom, beyond the control of the Shogunate or feudal authorities. This historically undocumented movement, I believe, formed the foundation of subsequent new religious movements. During this process, secret ancient Shinto knowledge, including kotodama, began spreading widely. Although most disseminators primarily sought financial gain, some possessed profound understanding of Shinto’s deepest secrets, paralleling or influenced by Atsutane Hirata, thus shaping the foundations of the new era.

Consequently, virtually no figure other than Atsutane Hirata achieved significant recognition concerning kotodama. Most of these individuals’ origins, real names, and personal histories remain unknown and will likely never be uncovered. Fortunately, these fragmented spiritual movements from the late Edo to early Meiji periods converged through Kisaburo Ueda’s spiritual journey, eventually becoming systematized under his guidance. Thus, the rise of Kisaburo Ueda—Onisaburo Deguchi—and his profound influence on modern history not only unsettled the times but also played a critical role in preserving the fascinating history of kotodama for future generations. This demonstrates Oomoto-kyo’s historical significance far beyond simply being another new religion.

Just as Atsutane Hirata profoundly inspired a diverse array of followers, ushering in the turbulent period leading to the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Onisaburo Deguchi similarly attracted widespread devotion, producing numerous successors and exerting immense influence during the tumultuous times surrounding World War II and post-war Japan. Although this influence persists even today, we are currently approaching the final phase in which it remains observable; within ten years, accurately evaluating this influence will become practically impossible. Thus, let us gradually delve deeper into this intriguing historical narrative.