神の哲学：アマテラスを読み解く基礎The Philosophy of Kami
The Japanese concept of kami (神) lost its essence once it was rendered as “God” in the modern era, and the gap in understanding that followed has been wide. Today, even in Japan, very few people can look deeply into what kami means, and confusion is everywhere. So I want to set out, from the foundations and on the basis of my own thinking, what this concept is, so that readers can grasp it.
First and foremost, it is crucial to recognize that no Japanese concept carries a single, fixed meaning; they are always plural. Here the way of thinking differs from one that tends to fix the identity of its objects. As I have said several times, Japanese is a predicate-centered language with no subject or copula in its structure, so you may assume its circuit of thought runs quite differently from that of modern English. Kami is, in essence, an untranslatable Japanese concept, and it cannot be fully decoded or explained in any language but Japanese. Still, I will convey what I can, within a minimum range.
It remains unclear exactly when the concept of kami first emerged in Japan, but the oldest surviving text, the Kojiki (712), already uses the word kami. Given that the earliest Japanese culture had no written tradition, and considering my multidimensional study of belief in kotodama (言霊), I regard the oldest layer of that culture as fundamentally a culture of sound. Consequently, overly fixating on the current kanji character for kami (神) obscures the ancient layer that was originally expressed simply as the sound kami. Historically, many proposals have been made about what the concept of kami meant, and none can be called the correct one. In fact, reducing it to a single meaning is itself meaningless. Herein lies the difficulty of reading it.
For example, the countless studies of kami present it as an extremely polysemous concept that includes natural phenomena, spirits, ancestral spirits, the souls of individuals, and even transcendent principles. Elements like the sun, moon, lightning, and wind; souls of historical heroes and ancestors; spirits inhabiting animals and plants; spiritual beings that bring fortune or misfortune; and even fundamental principles underlying the world—anything evoking awe or reverence has historically been called kami. Reflecting on this breadth, Motoori Norinaga, the Edo-period scholar of kokugaku (国学) who first laid the foundation for reading the Kojiki, said: “Whatever is extraordinary, whether in excellence or in strangeness, and inspires awe is called kami.” In other words, he showed that the range of kami is exceedingly broad, or rather infinite.
The common understanding sees Japan through its nature worship and its belief in the yaoyorozu no kami (八百万神, the eight million kami). People sensed something mysterious within natural objects and phenomena such as mountains, rivers, giant trees and rocks, fire, and lightning, and began revering them. This sentiment formed the core of Shinto, and it is believed that these supernatural entities were collectively named kami in later times. Consequently, texts like Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, compiled in antiquity, already imply diverse kami, which shows that kami are by no means a single kind of being. It is important to note here that kami were not beings who once roamed the earth physically like humans, nor was it simply a matter of designating natural objects or phenomena as kami. Simply put, kami were not anthropomorphic deities.
Although comprehensive understanding of the entire concept will be gradually explored, this article will briefly examine Amaterasu (天照大御神), designated as the ancestral deity of the emperor. For instance, viewing Amaterasu merely as a sun goddess remains common even in contemporary Japan, yet the Kojiki contains no such description. The perspective equating Amaterasu with the sun goddess frequently cites the tale of the hiding in the Heavenly Rock Cave (天岩戸隠れ). In the distortion of this myth over time, it became understood that the world plunged into darkness when Amaterasu, the sun goddess, hid, and her reemergence brought “light” back to the earth. However, this interpretation is unrelated to ancient Japanese belief. In other words, a significant shift occurred in religious interpretation during a later period, specifically the era of shinbutsu shugo (神仏習合, the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism).
After the intense political struggles following Buddhism’s arrival, Japan entered the medieval period marked by Buddhism’s widespread integration, causing the concept of kami to evolve significantly through fusion with Buddhism. Between the Heian period (794–late 12th century) and the Kamakura period (late 12th century–1333), the idea of shinbutsu shugo, the syncretism of kami and the buddhas, spread among monks and Shinto priests, and it was here that a pivotal doctrine called honji suijaku (本地垂迹説) emerged, asserting that kami were manifestations of the buddhas. This concept was strategically crucial because establishing Buddhism, an imported religion, as absolute in Japan necessitated skillfully merging it with the pre-existing kami beliefs. Consequently, the concept of kami, cultivated over millennia, was profoundly disrupted.
Under the honji suijaku doctrine, the kami of Japan were regarded as nothing more than temporary manifestations (suijaku, 垂迹) of buddhas and bodhisattvas, whose true form (honji, 本地) was a buddha. A noteworthy point is that Buddhism was fundamentally an idol-worshipping religion, with statues and temples. Since ancient Japanese beliefs did not originally involve worshipping personified deities nor entities with physical forms, this aspect of Buddhist idol worship profoundly impacted Shinto. In essence, kami began to be personified, adopting more tangible and substantial forms, similar to Buddhist deities.
Under honji suijaku, Amaterasu, set as the ancestral kami of the imperial family in Shinto, was identified as a manifestation of the Esoteric Buddhist deity Dainichi Nyorai, who symbolized the sun according to continental interpretations. Previously, Amaterasu was not worshipped explicitly as a sun deity. From this viewpoint, Amaterasu is not a deity who actually existed.
However, complexities escalated further. The arbitrary interpretation applied to kami through honji suijaku by Buddhist factions prompted fierce reactions from some medieval Shintoists. Leading this opposition was the Watarai clan, priests of the Outer Shrine (Geku) at Ise Jingu. By the late Kamakura period, the Watarai clan reversed the honji suijaku doctrine and proposed shinpon butsujaku (神本仏迹説), which argued the opposite: "kami are the original source, and the buddhas are merely their manifestations." The new Shinto built on this foundation became Ise Shinto (Watarai Shinto), which profoundly influenced later developments, in an age when Shinto itself was still unstable as a religion.
Ise Shinto specifically sought to establish a Shinto system superior to Buddhism. Utilizing ancient texts from both Inner Shrine (Naiku) and Outer Shrine (Geku), the Watarai clan innovatively linked Amaterasu, the deity of the Inner Shrine, and Toyouke, the deity of the Outer Shrine, to universal cosmic principles to challenge Buddhism. Simultaneously, the Watarai clan also addressed internal struggles for authority within Ise Shrine. Being priests of the Outer Shrine, they positioned Toyouke as a primal deity preceding Amaterasu, equating her with Amenominakanushi, the creator deity in Japanese mythology, thus attempting to restore the Outer Shrine’s authority. Given that the period favored the Inner Shrine’s prestige, this movement represented the Outer Shrine’s reaction against its diminished status.
Moreover, as the Watarai clan was proficient in yin-yang and five-elements theory, they symbolically classified the Inner Shrine as "fire" and the Outer Shrine as "water." From the viewpoint of the Five Elements theory, they asserted "water overcomes fire (水克火),” emphasizing the absolute superiority of Toyouke (Outer Shrine). This identification of the Inner Shrine with "fire" further merged with the sun worship associated with Dainichi Nyorai, thus contributing to identifying Amaterasu explicitly as the sun deity. In this way, the Watarai clan sought to overturn the dominance of Buddhism and restore the authority of the Outer Shrine by systematizing Shinto doctrines uniquely.
After this significant transformative period in Shinto, during the Muromachi period (1336–1573), Yoshida Kanetomo (1435–1511), a Shinto priest in Kyoto, established Yoshida Shinto. This movement was influenced by the devastating Onin War (1467–1477), during which many Shinto texts were destroyed. Yoshida Kanetomo thus attempted to systematize independent Shinto teachings and rituals by personally creating and even fabricating texts. Yoshida Shinto consciously aspired to be completely independent from Buddhism, yet strictly speaking, it was "consciously independent" rather than fully free from Buddhist influence. Nevertheless, Yoshida Kanetomo’s theories significantly influenced anti-Buddhist thought in the Edo period.
Thus, medieval Japan saw two distinct trends emerge: arbitrary and pluralistic interpretations of kami by Buddhism through shinbutsu shugo, and independent pursuits of original Shinto principles opposing these Buddhist interpretations. These two directions deeply influenced subsequent Shinto history, elevating kami from natural spirits to philosophical concepts and significantly adding anthropomorphic and substantial characteristics. This complex historical background is critical since it formed the ideological basis for the later rise of kokugaku (国学) in the Edo period and State Shinto in the Meiji era. Having briefly outlined this transformation, we will proceed to examine Amaterasu further based on this historical context.
Amaterasu is represented in kanji as『天照大御神』, meaning “the deity who illuminates the heavens.” The character『御』(mi) is an honorific, and『大御神』(Omikami) denotes the highest reverence as “the greatest deity.” Crucially, the interpretation of『Amaterasu (天照, illuminating the heavens)』gradually transformed during the medieval conceptual shifts described earlier into『illuminating the heavens = Sun Goddess』. Furthermore, interpretations of the Kojiki’s myththe hiding in the Heavenly Rock Cavealso gradually turned into solar mythology.
However, when reconsidering from the perspective of sounds predating written language, a completely different reality of the deity emerges. The viewpoint interpreting『天』(Ama/Ame, heaven) was already prevalent by the time of the compilation of Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the early 8th century. Yet, ancient Japanese people originally had no concept of a heavenly realm. Personally, I sense a strong influence from ancient Chinese cosmology, interpreting the idea of a celestial world as an imported concept brought by foreign tribes. Reflecting calmly on ancient Japanese history, it becomes clear that tribes migrating to the Japanese archipelago via the continent and Korean peninsula inevitably had to cross the sea. Although myths from the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki already depicted divine beings directly descending from heaven to the Japanese islands, known as『Ama-kudari (天降り, heavenly descent)』, this too is a later conceptual innovation. Originally, the Japanese sound『Ama』represented the concept of “the sea (海).”
Indeed, even today, coastal regions across Japan preserve remnants of this usage by referring to fishermen and women divers as『Ama (海人・海女)』. Additionally, the southern islands near Kyushu continue to reflect this maritime association through their name『Amami (奄美大島)』. Moreover, ancient tribes skilled at maritime navigation were called『Ama (海部氏, Ama clan)』and possessed considerable influence along coastal regions throughout Japan. A notable example is the Kono Shrine located along the coast of Tango in Kyoto Prefecture; its chief priests are direct descendants of the『Ama (Ama clan)』, with their detailed genealogy recognized as a national treasure.
The persistence of this『Ama』sound can be understood by considering the circumstances faced by continental tribes migrating to Japan. To safely cross the sea and successfully arrive at new lands, it would have been indispensable to have a belief in a non-physical deity—a『kami who illuminates sea routes』—both from the perspective of survival and for uniting anxious tribes. In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu is depicted as the deity bringing rice cultivation, signifying her followers as agricultural tribes who lacked maritime navigation skills. Therefore, they needed assistance from tribes skilled at sea travel along coastal China and the Korean peninsula, leading to heightened worship of a deity illuminating safe sea passages. This belief gave rise to the veneration of『Amaterasu (海照神, the kami who illuminates the sea)』.
This concept is also related to the frequent depiction of birds as symbolic deities guiding paths in Japanese mythology. Furthermore, pottery of Yayoi-era people, who originated from Northeast Asia and migrated to Japan, depicts ceremonial groups wearing bird-like costumes. I have personally observed several such artifacts; their leaders—primarily female shamans—were depicted wearing『bird costumes』, arriving in boats, illustrating ancient memories of their migration to Japan. As the earlier Jomon people did not decorate pottery with drawings, this was a novel custom introduced by Yayoi immigrants. They commemorated their homeland and illustrated how they reached new lands through images carved into their pottery. This practice also survived among the Ryukyuan people discussed previously. Indeed, folklore studies indicate records of Ryukyuan men leaving their homeland to travel to the Japanese archipelago, who deified seabirds such as seagulls flying around their boats during voyages.
Simply put, Amaterasu was neither a deity from a celestial realm nor indigenous to Japan; rather, she was a deity worshipped by tribal groups who arrived from across the sea (continental Asia). The original root of her worship was as a guiding deity prayed to for safety on uncertain sea routes. This represents the true origin of Amaterasu. Subsequently, as migration ended and assimilation into the Japanese archipelago progressed, conflicts intensified over claims of tribal legitimacy. During this process, multiple foreign tribes fragmented and reassembled repeatedly, gradually expanding their influence, eventually settling in the fertile basin area of southern Yamato (present-day southern Nara Prefecture) and establishing an organized state. This marked the true beginning of the Japanese nation. Incidentally, southern Yamato was considered paradise due to its ideal environment for wet rice agriculture.
This narrative also closely relates to the origins of the Japanese emperor, aligning with Japan’s historical classification as the Kofun period. From then onward, over several centuries, Yamato underwent nation-building efforts, including the introduction of Buddhism, establishment of the imperial court, and implementation of the ritsuryo system. Consequently, legitimacy came to be told as something rooted in this land, and the memory of origins across the sea quietly receded from the foreground of the story. The concept『Ama』thus transitioned gradually from representing “the sea (海)” to the Chinese-influenced concept of “the heavens (天).” However, this transformation did not happen immediately; it unfolded slowly over several centuries. Indeed, folklorist Shinobu Orikuchi noted, in his analysis of visiting kami (来訪神), that originally these kami came from the sea, later shifted to mountains, and eventually transitioned to descending from the heavens.
With this understanding established, I will continue publishing related articles to help readers deepen their comprehension of the concept of kami.